The Internet Journal of Pulmonary Medicine™ ISSN: 1531-2984

| Home | Editors | Current Issue | Archives | Instructions for Authors | Disclaimer | Bookmark and Share Share with others |
 

Nitrofurantoin Pulmonary Toxicity: A Brief Review

Bobbak Vahid M.D.
Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine
Thomas Jefferson University Physical Address

Bernadette M.M. Wildemore M.D.
Department of Pathology
Thomas Jefferson University Physical Address

Citation: B. Vahid & B. M. Wildemore : Nitrofurantoin Pulmonary Toxicity: A Brief Review . The Internet Journal of Pulmonary Medicine. 2006 Volume 6 Number 2

Keywords: Nitrofurantoin | Drug-induced Lung Toxicity | Organizing Pneumonia | Pneumonitis

 

Abstract

Nitrofurantoin is an antimicrobial agent that is commonly used for treatment of recurrent urinary tract infection. Nitrofurantoin pulmonary toxicity can present as an acute, subacute, or chronic respiratory disease. Common manifestations are dry cough, chest pain, dyspnea, and hypoxemia. Skin rash, arthralgia, and abnormal transaminases are occasionally present. Chest imaging shows patchy infiltrates and fibrosis. Treatment includes stopping the medication and occasionally a course of corticosteroid therapy.


Introduction

Nitrofurantoin is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent. Nitrofurantoin is commonly used to treat acute and recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) in women, and it is an effective chemotherapeutic agent for patients with recurrent UTIs. Eighty five percent of patients who present with nitrofurantoin-associated pulmonary reactions are women. This observation may be related to the fact that women are more susceptible to recurrent UTI1, 2. Nitrofurantoin-associated pulmonary reactions are reported in less than 1% of patients treated with nitrofurantoin. Acute and severe pulmonary toxicity is even less common. In one study acute pulmonary toxicity that required hospitalization occurred only 3 times among 16101 first courses of treatment with nitrofurantoin3. Patients who present acutely are usually younger with median age of 59 years as compared to those with a chronic presentation with median age of 68 years2.

Nitrofurantoin Pulmonary Toxicity

Various clinical manifestations of nitrofurantoin pulmonary toxicity have been described in the literature:

    Acute presentation is the most common clinical presentation (83%). The acute reaction is characterized by marked constitutional symptoms including fever, maculopapular rash, arthralgia, and fatigue. Common pulmonary symptoms are dry cough, chest pain, and dyspnea. Peripheral eosinophilia is common. Eosinophilia is often absent initially; becoming more frequent with subsequent episodes or after treatment for several days. Pulmonary reactions to nitrofurantoin do not appear to be dose related. Eight percent of acute reactions manifest in the first 8 to 9 days and all acute reactions occur within 1 month on nitrofurantoin therapy. Acute reactions may recur in a much shorter period (within 24 hours) following repeated treatment4,5,6. Acute pulmonary toxicity after starting fluconazole in combination with chronic nitrofurantoin has been reported7. Acute pulmonary toxicity has been described in patients who showed no pulmonary reaction with previous nitrofurantoin exposures8. Subacute presentation have more insidious onset of symptoms, with most reported cases having received nitrofurantoin for periods ranging at least from 1 month to 6 months. Common symptoms include dry cough, dyspnea, low grade fever, and cyanosis. Laboratory findings may show elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, increased IgG levels, and increased antinuclear antibody (ANA) titers2,4, 5. Chronic presentation and pulmonary fibrosis is seen in patients on nitrofurantoin therapy for 6 months to 6 years. The usual presenting symptoms are progressive dyspnea and dry cough over weeks to years9,10,11. Fulminant pulmonary hemorrhage presenting with hemoptysis and respiratory failure has also been described12,13.

Laboratory Findings And Bronchoalveolar Lavage

Table 1 summarizes the laboratory findings in acute and chronic nitrofurantoin pulmonary toxicity. Although bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is helpful to exclude infectious etiologies of pulmonary disease, BAL findings in nitrofurantoin-associated lung injury are nonspecific2,3,4,5.

Pathology

Pathologic findings of acute nitrofurantoin pulmonary toxicity include mild interstitial inflammation, interstitial infiltration of eosinophils, reactive type II pneumocytes, alveolitis, fibrinous alveolar exudates, focal hemorrhage, and vasculitis. Characteristic pathologic finding in chronic nitrofurantoin pulmonary toxicity are diffuse interstitial fibrosis, vascular sclerosis, fibrosis and thickening of the alveolar septa, interstitial inflammation, and bronchiolitis obliterans with organizing pneumonia2,3,4, 14,15,16 (Figure1). Desquamative interstitial pneumonia, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and giant cell interstitial pneumonia have been rarely reported in nitrofurantoin lung toxicity17, 18.

Radiographic Findings

Parenchymal changes due to nitrofurantoin pulmonary toxicity are almost always bilateral and are localized predominantly in the lower lung zones on chest radiographs (Figure2). Although unilateral pleural effusions may be accompanied by parenchymal changes, these findings are rare. High resolution computed tomography (CT) scan of the chest may show ground glass opacities, patchy consolidation, and subpleural irregular linear opacities (Figure3) 11, 16, 19. Reticular pattern and traction bronchiectasis are also commonly seen in chronic nitrofurantoin toxicity. Although widespread reticular pattern and associated distortion of the lung parenchyma commonly means established and irreversible fibrosis, resolution of these changes have been observed after 6 weeks to 1 year after withdrawing the drug20.

Pulmonary Function Testing

The typical findings are decreased total lung capacity (TLC), forced vital capacity (FVC), and single-breath carbon monoxide diffusion capacity (DLCO). Although DLCO is always reduced, normal lung volumes may be seen14, 16, 20.

Radionuclide Scanning

Nitrofurantoin-induced pulmonary toxicity results in inflammation in lung parenchyma. Gallium-67 citrate lung scintigraphy is highly sensitive test for the detection of pulmonary inflammation. Gallium scans has been used for early detection of nitrofurantoin pulmonary toxicity21. Ventilation-perfusion lung imaging may also show a transient reverse ventilation-perfusion mismatch in acute nitrofurantoin lung toxicity. These changes are usually resolved after 24 to 48 hours after stopping the medication22, 23.

Combined Lung and Liver Toxicity

Patients with chronic pulmonary nitrofurantoin toxicity may also present with chronic hepatitis or abnormally elevated hepatic transaminases. Chronic hepatitis in these patients is associated with positive antinuclear and anti-smooth-muscle antibodies24, 25.

Pathogenesis

The mechanism of pulmonary toxicity due to nitrofurantoin is not known. Several mechanisms have been suggested based on clinical, experimental, and animal studies:

    Direct injury of lung parenchymal cells through oxidant mechanisms26, 27.Nitrofurantoin-induced injury is accelerated in the presence of hyperoxia 27, 28. Nitrofurantoin-stimulated lymphocytes mediated alveolar epithelial injury29, 30.Pulmonary endothelial cell injury31.Immune-complex mediated reactions14.Hypersensitivity reactions20.

Treatment

After stopping nitrofurantoin therapy, about 47% of patients with acute pulmonary reaction are asymptomatic after one day, 88% within 3 days, and almost all patients after 2 weeks. Recovery in patients with subacute or chronic reaction may take from 2 weeks to 3 months. Pulmonary fibrotic changes may persist in about 60% of these patients.

The role of corticosteroids has not been well described, however, in patients with respiratory symptoms or hypoxemia a trial of corticosteroids may be helpful2,3,4,5,6.

Mortality

In one study (1966-1976) mortality among 398 patients with acute nitrofurantoin-associated pulmonary toxicity was only 0.5%. In the same study, the mortality associated with chronic pulmonary toxicity among 49 patients was higher (8%) 2,3,4.

Thumbnail: Figure 1: Transbronchial biopsy specimen showing bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia secondary to treatmen...
Figure 1: Transbronchial biopsy specimen showing bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia secondary to treatment with nitrofurantoin (hematoxylin and eosin, 200X).

Thumbnail: Figure 2: Chest radiograph showing bilateral lower lobe infiltrates in a patient with nitrofurantoin-associated pulm...
Figure 2: Chest radiograph showing bilateral lower lobe infiltrates in a patient with nitrofurantoin-associated pulmonary toxicity.

Thumbnail: Figure 3: CT scan of the chest showing bilateral peripheral patchy consolidations and ground-glass opacities in nitr...
Figure 3: CT scan of the chest showing bilateral peripheral patchy consolidations and ground-glass opacities in nitrofurantoin-associated pulmonary toxicity.

Thumbnail: Table 1: Laboratory findings in acute and chronic nitrofurantoin pulmonary toxicity.
Table 1: Laboratory findings in acute and chronic nitrofurantoin pulmonary toxicity.

Author for correspondence

Bobbak Vahid, MD
834 Walnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
Tel: 215 9556591
Fax: 215 9550830

References

1. Gleckman R, Alvarez S, Joubert DW. Drug therapy reviews: nitrofurantoin. Am J Hosp Pharm 1979;36:342-351 (s)

2. Holmberg L, Boman G. Pulmonary reactions to nitrofurantoin. 447 cases reported to the Swedish Adverse Drug Reaction Committee 1966-1976. Eur J Respir Dis 1981; 62:180-189. (s)

3. Jick SS, Jick H, Walker AM, Hunter JR. Hospitalization for pulmonary reactions following nitrofurantoin use. Chest 1989; 96: 512-515 (s)

4. Sovojiarvi AR, Lemola M, Stenius B, Idanpaan-Heikkila. Nitrofurantoin induced acute, subacute and chronic pulmonary reactions. Scand J Respir Dis 1977;58: 41-50 (s)

5. Holmberg L, Boman G, Bottiger LE, et al. Adverse Reactions to Nitrofurantoin, analysis of 921 Reports. Am J Med 1980; 69:733-738 (s)

6. Chundnofsky CR, Otten EJ. Acute pulmonary toxicity to nitrofurantoin. J Emerg Med 1989; 7: 15-19 (s)

7. Linnebur SA, Parnes BL. Pulmonary and hepatic toxicity due to nitrofurantoin and fluconazole treatment. Ann Pharmocother, 2004: 38:612-616 (s)

8. Bucknall CE, Adamson MR, Banham SW. Nonfatal pulmonary hemorrhage associated with nitrofurantoin. Thorax 1987; 42:475-476 (s)

9. Robinson BW. Nitrofurantoin-induced interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. Presentation and outcome. Med J Aust 1983; 1:72-76 (s)

10. Willcox PA, Maze SS, Sandler M, et al. Pulmonary fibrosis following long-term nitrofurantoin therapy. S Afr Med J 1982;61:714-717 (s)

11. Mendez JL, Nadrous HF, Hartman TE, Ryu JH. Chronic nitrofurantoin-induced lung disease. Mayo Clin Proc 2005;80:1298-1302 (s)

12. Averbuch SD, Yungbluth P. Fatal pulmonary hemorrhage due to nitrofurantoin. Arch Intern Med 1980;140:271-273 (s)

13. Meyer M M, Meyer R J. Nitrofurantoin-induced pulmonary hemorrhage in a renal transplant recipient receiving immunosuppressive therapy: case report and review of the literature. J Urol 1994; 152: 938-940 (s)

14. Taskinen E, Tukiainen P, Sovijarvi AR. Nitrofurantoin-induced alterations in pulmonary tissue. A report on five patients with acute or subacute reactions. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 1977;85:713-720 (s)

15. Cohen AJ, King TE Jr, Downey GP. Rapidly progressive bronchiolitis obliterans with organizing pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:1670-1675 (s)

16. Cameron RJ, Kolbe J, Wilsher ML, et al. Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia associated with the use of nitrofurantoin. Thorax 2000;55:249-251 (s)

17. Bone RC, Wolfe J, Sobonya RE, et al. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia following long-term nitrofurantoin therapy. Am J Med 1976;60:697-701 (s)

18. Magee F, Wright JL, Currie W, et al. Two unusual pathologic reactions to nitrofurantoin: case reports. Histopathology 1986;10:701-706 (s)

19. Padley SP, Alder B, Hansell DM, Muller NL. High-resolution computed tomography of drug-induced lung disease. Clin Radiol 1992;46:232-236 (s)

20. Sheehan RE, Wells AU, Milne DG, et al. Nitrofurantoin-induced lung disease: two cases demonstrating resolution of apparently irreversible CT abnormalities. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2000; 24:259-61 (s)

21. Moinuddin M. Radionuclide scanning in the detection of drug-induced lung disorders. J Thor Imaging 1991;6 :62-67 (s)

22. Basoglu T, Erkan L, Canbaz F, et al. Transient reverse ventilation-perfusion mismatch in acute pulmonary nitrofurantoin reaction. Ann Nucl Med 1997; 11:271-274 (s)

23. Lee NK, Slavin JD Jr, Spencer RP. Ventilation-perfusion lung imaging in nitrofurantoin-related pulmonary reaction. Clin Nucl Med 1992; 17 :94-96 (s)

24. Reinhart HH, Reinhart E, Korlipara P, Peleman R. Combined nitrofurantoin toxicity to liver and lung. Gastroenterology 1992; 102: 1396-1399 (s)

25. Schattner A, Von der Walde J, Kozak N, et al. Nitrofurantoin-induced immune-mediated lung and liver disease. Am J Med Sci 1999; 317:336-340 (s)

26. Martin WJ 2nd. Nitrofurantoin: evidence for the oxidant injury of lung parenchymal cells. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983; 127: 482-486 (s)

27. Dunbas JR, DeLucia AJ, Bryant LR. Glutathione status of isolated rabbit lungs. Effects of nitrofurantoin and paraquat perfusion with normoxic and hyperoxic ventilation. Biochem Pharmacol 1984; 33: 1343-1348 (s)

28. Suntres ZE, Shek PN. Nitrofurantoin-induced pulmonary toxicity. In vivo evidence for oxidative stress-mediated mechanisms. Biochem Pharmacol 1992; 43: 1127-1135 (s)

29. Brutinel WM, Martin WJ 2nd. Chronic nitrofurantoin reaction with T-lymphocyte alveolitis. Chest 1986 ;89:150-152 (s)

30. Pearsall HR, Ewalt J, Tsoi MS, et al. Nitrofurantoin lung sensitivity: report of a case with prolonged nitrofurantoin lymphocyte sensitivity and interaction of nitrofurantoin-stimulated lymphocytes with alveolar cells. J Lab Clin Med 1974; 83: 728-737 (s)

31. Martin WJ 2nd, Powis GW, Kachel DL. Nitrofurantoin-stimulated oxidant production in pulmonary endothelial cells. J Lab Clin Med 1985; 105: 23-29 (s)

This article was last modified on Fri, 13 Feb 09 14:04:01 -0600

This page was generated on Tue, 09 Feb 10 10:01:46 -0600, and may be cached.
Advertisement